Biblical commentaries, glosses (from the Greek glossa meaning “tongue”), or postils (from the Latin post illa verba textus meaning “after these words of the text”), were sometimes featured in Latin bibles printed before 1530. When they were included, it was always at a cost, however, adding significantly both to the complexity of the typesetting and to the length of the finished bible. It has often been remarked that Europe’s earliest printers, while technologically innovative, tended to take a cautious and conservative approach to the market. In other words, they printed classics of the ancient and medieval worlds in the hope of securing as many sales as possible. Printers who incorporated commentaries in their Latin bibles tended to be similarly conservative, typically opting for works written hundreds of years earlier. There were various types of commentaries written during this period, including verse-by-verse explanations, thematic treatises, homilies, and glosses — often reproduced as brief notes written in the margins or between the lines of the biblical text.

A close examination of this bibliography reveals that several commentaries and glosses were particularly popular. These included works by (or reputedly by) Walafrid Strabo, Anselm of Laon, Nicholas of Lyra, Paul Burgos, Guillelmus Brito and Matthias Döring. In most cases, if a bible included one of these works, it would also include a second, third, or even fourth. Information on each of these figures, with a brief summary of their contribution to biblical exegesis, follows:

Walafrid Strabo (AD 808–849) was an influential figure in the Carolingian Renaissance known for his work as a poet, hagiographer, and theologian. Before the twentieth century, he was widely believed to be the the compiler of the Glossa Ordinaria — a collection of notes or explanations (typically conveyed before the advent of printing as individual biblical books surrounded by commentaries rather than as a separate and single collection) on the text of the Bible. Drawn from patristic and other authoritative sources in the preceding centuries, these notes (or glosses) were typically added to the margins of the Bible in order to explain or interpret difficult passages. It is now believed, however, that the Glossa Ordinaria was developed by Anselm of Laon and others at the cathedral school of Laon in northern France. Despite its misattribution, it would be difficult to overstate the impact this work had on biblical interpretation in the following centuries. The Glossa Ordinaria can be found in half a dozen bibles printed before 1530. The first of these was printed by Adolf Rusch in Strasbourg for Anton Koberger around the year 1480 (no. 47).

Anselm of Laon (d. AD 1117), a leading scholar of the 12th century, is also credited with developing the Glossa Interlinearis, a line-by-line interpretation of the Bible. Here Anselm sought to resolve apparent contradictions and clarify obscurities in the sacred text. The Glossa Interlinearis almost always appeared together with the Glossa Ordinaria. Rusch’s bible of 1480 was also the first to include this work (no. 47).

Biblia cum postillae, Anton Koberger, 1486.
Biblia cum postillae, Anton Koberger, 1486

Nicholas of Lyra (c. AD 1270-1349), a Franciscan friar, was undoubtedly among the most influential biblical exegetes of the Middle Ages. Born in Normandy, Nicholas learned Hebrew as a young man and was familiar with the Talmud, Midrash, and the works of Solomon ben Isaac of Troyes (also known as Rashi). He bacame regent master of Theology at the University of Paris in the early fourteenth century and remained at the University the rest of his life. His major work, Postillae litteralis super totam Bibliam was completed in 1331 and presented literal and historical interpretations of the Bible — a groundbreaking approach in an era when allegorical interpretations were the norm. It soon became, with the Glossa Ordinaria, the most widely copied biblical commentary of the late Middle Ages. Perhaps unsurprisingly, de Lyra’s emphasis on the literal sense of Scripture and his proficiency in Hebrew helped to enhance his reputation as a scholar among humanists and reformers as the sixteenth century progressed. All or part of Lyra’s Postillae can be found in more than a dozen bibles printed before 1530. These folio bibles were typically four to six volumes in length. The first Latin bible to include de Lyra’s work was printed by Venetian printer Johannes Herbort for Johannes de Colonia and Nicolaus Jenson in 1481 (no. 51). Although the manuscripts on which this work was based typically included illustrations, Herbort’s bible left only blank spaces for later scribal illustration. The first edition of the Latin bible to include printed woodcuts illustrating de Lyra’s commentaries was produced by Anton Koberger in Nuremberg in 1485 (no. 63).

Paul Burgos (c. AD 1351-1435), also known as Paulus de Santa Maria, was a Jewish convert to Christianity who became bishop of Burgos in Spain. He was known for his Additiones to Nicholas of Lyra’s Postillae. In these he draw upon Jewish interpretations of the Bible to shed additional light on the Bible’s literal and historical meanings. This incorporation of Jewish perspectives contributed to a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the Biblical text and almost always appeared in printed bibles that included the Postillae. In the present instance, it can be found in nos. 51, 54, 63, 65, 74, 80, 84, 92, 96, 101, 106, 113.

Matthias Döring (Magister Matthias Doering) (fl. AD 1426-1469) was late medieval theologian who wrote the a series of refutations to Paul Burgos’s Additiones known as the Replicae. While Burgos’s Additiones appeared in all the bibles in this bibliography that included Lyra’s Postillae except one (no., 87), Döring’s Replicae can be found only in nos. 51, 54, 63, 65, 74, 80, 84, 92.

Finally, Guillelmus Brito, also known as William Brito, was a thirteenth or fourteenth-century lexicographer and theologian known for his Summa Vocabulorum Bibliae. It was sometimes also referred to as the Magna Glossatura or the Summa Britonis. Completed around 1300, the work is essentially a comprehensive glossary of the Latin Bible. The Summa is considered especially significant because it reflects the transition from glosses or commentaries that were connected directly to the text, to a more distinct form of lexical work that could be used as a reference independently of the text. It was a popular addition to Latin bibles printed before 1530 and can be found in nos. 51, 54, 63, 65, 74, 80, 84, 87, 89, 92, 96, 101.

❧ Further Reading

❧ Some Historical Fiction

In the early 14th century, Nicholas, regent master of Theology, sits in his cell at the University of Paris, surrounded by the musty scent of old parchment and the faint waft of burning candles. The room is dimly lit, with sunlight filtering through narrow windows casting oblique rays of light onto the thick, wooden desk. The silence of the cell is palpable and almost sacred, as if the room is holding its breath, waiting for divine inspiration to flow through the pens of its occupants.

Lyra is a tall, gaunt figure, dressed in the plain brown robe of the Franciscan order, cinched at the waist with a simple rope belt. His tonsured head and hooded cowl frame a face marked by deep concentration and lined with the rigours of monastic life. A prominent nose and high cheekbones give him a sharp, eagle-like countenance, while his intense, brown eyes seem to bore into the pages before him. He leans over a desk, his posture slightly stooped, as if drawn magnetically to the texts spread before him. His right hand moves steadily, etching ink onto the parchment, while his left hand rests on an open tome, the words of which have inspired his current labour.

Nicholas’s desk is for him a kind of altar. And it is laden with books. One is a well-worn copy of the Bible in Latin, its pages full of annotations and bookmarks. Another is a Hebrew version of the Old Testament, ready evidence of Lyra’s commitment to learning the original languages of the sacred texts. Other volumes, some bearing the names of Thomas Aquinas, Raymond Martini, and even the works of the Jewish sage Rashi, are stacked on the desk or lie open, their texts crowded by dense annotations. Nicholas’ own quill moves across the page with a steady rhythm, occasionally pausing as he refers to one of the open books, his mind synthesising centuries of wisdom into his own unique commentary.

Nicholas is motivated by a deep sense of responsibility to the Scriptures. He is inspired by his studies and his exposure to Hebrew texts as he labours to clear the obfuscation that has pervaded biblical exegesis. He hopes that his “Postillae” will help, bringing a deeper and more grounded understanding to the clergy and, through them, to the people. He seeks especially to illuminate the literal sense of the Scriptures, stripping away the layers of allegory and speculation that, in his view, have complicated and abstracted their true meaning.

But doubts occasionally cloud his mind. Does he have the depth of understanding necessary to undertake this immense task? He is relying heavily on the works of Jewish scholars, and he wonders how this will be received by his fellow Christians. Will his work, grounded in Hebrew scholarship be accepted by the Church? He is acutely aware of the tension between tradition and innovation as he works to achieve that elusive and delicate balance between adhering to established doctrine while seeking fresh interpretations.

Lyra looks up from his writing, stretching his back and rolling his shoulders. His eyes linger on the flickering flames of the candles. He takes a deep breath as the smell of wax and parchment fill his nostrils. His duty, he reminds himself, is to the truth and therefore to a faithful and accurate understanding of the Scriptures. He dips his quill into the inkwell and continues to write.